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Rosalind Elsie Franklin 25 July — 16 April [1] was an English chemist and X-ray crystallographer whose work was central to the understanding of the molecular structures of DNA deoxyribonucleic acidRNA ribonucleic acidvirusescoaland graphite.
She graduated in with a degree in natural sciences from Newnham College, Cambridgeand then enrolled for a PhD in physical chemistry under Ronald George Wreyford Norrishthe Chair of Physical Chemistry at the University of Cambridge. The research need a thesis for 6 th grade history of israel coal helped her earn a PhD from Cambridge in After joining King's College London in as a research associate, she discovered the key properties of DNA, which eventually facilitated the correct description of the double helix structure of DNA.
Franklin is best known for her work on the X-ray diffraction images of DNA while at King's College London, particularly Photo 51taken by her student Raymond Goslingwhich led to the discovery of the DNA double helix for which Francis CrickJames Watsonand Maurice Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in Working under John Desmond BernalFranklin led pioneering work at Birkbeck on the molecular structures of viruses.
Her team member Aaron Klug continued her research, winning the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in Need a thesis for 6 th grade history of israel was born on 25 July in 50 Chepstow Villas, [16] Notting HillLondon, into an affluent and influential British Jewish family.
Franklin's father was Ellis Arthur Franklin —a politically liberal London merchant banker who taught at the city's Working Men's Collegeand her mother was Muriel Frances Waley — Rosalind was the elder daughter and the second child in the family of five children. David born was the eldest brother; Colin —Roland bornand Jenifer born were her younger siblings.
Franklin's paternal great-uncle was Herbert Samuel later Viscount Samuelwho was the Home Secretary in and the first practising Jew to serve in the British Cabinet. Rosalind's middle name, "Elsie", was in memory of Hugh's first wife, who died in the flu pandemic.
Franklin's parents helped settle Jewish refugees from Europe who had escaped the Nazisparticularly those from the Kindertransport. From early childhood, Franklin showed exceptional scholastic abilities.
At age six, she joined her brother Need a thesis for 6 th grade history of israel at Norland Place Schoola private day school in West London. At that time, her aunt Mamie Helen Bentwichdescribed her to her husband: "Rosalind is alarmingly clever — she spends all her time doing arithmetic for pleasure, and invariably gets her sums right. At age nine, she entered a boarding school, Lindores School for Young Ladies in Sussex.
She was 11 when she went to St Paul's Girls' School in Hammersmithwest London, one of the few girls' schools in London that taught physics and chemistry. She topped her classes, and won annual awards. Her only educational weakness was in music, for which the school music director, the composer Gustav Holstonce called upon her mother to inquire whether she might have suffered from hearing problems or tonsillitis.
Franklin went to Newnham College, Cambridge in and studied chemistry within the Natural Sciences Tripos. There she met the spectroscopist Bill Pricewho worked with her as a laboratory demonstrator and who later became one of her senior colleagues at King's College London. The need a thesis for 6 th grade history of israel was accepted as a bachelor's degree in qualifications for employment.
Cambridge began awarding titular BA and MA degrees to women fromand the previous women graduates retroactively received these. Franklin was awarded a research fellowship at Newnham College, with which she joined the physical chemistry laboratory of the University of Cambridge to work under Ronald George Wreyford Norrishneed a thesis for 6 th grade history of israel, who later won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
In her one year of work there, she did not have much success. At that time he was succumbing to heavy drinking. Franklin wrote that he made her despise him completely. Norrish acted as advisor to the military at BCURA. John G. Bennett was the director. Marcello Pirani and Victor Goldschmidtboth refugees from the Need a thesis for 6 th grade history of israel, were consultants and lectured at BCURA while Franklin worked there. With Irene, she volunteered as an Air Need a thesis for 6 th grade history of israel Warden and regularly made patrols to see the welfare of people during air raids.
She studied the porosity of coal using helium to determine its density. By concluding that substances were expelled in order of molecular size as temperature increased, need a thesis for 6 th grade history of israel, she helped classify coals and accurately predict their performance for fuel purposes and for production of wartime devices such as gas masks.
With World War II ending inFranklin asked Adrienne Weill for help and to let her know of job openings for "a physical chemist who knows very little physical chemistry, but quite a lot about the holes in coal. This need a thesis for 6 th grade history of israel to her appointment with Jacques Mering at the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de l'État in Paris.
She joined the labo as referred to by the staff of Mering on 14 February as one of the fifteen chercheurs researchers. Mering was an X-ray crystallographer who applied X-ray diffraction to the study of rayon and other amorphous substances, in contrast to the thousands of regular crystals that had been studied by this method for many years. This presented new challenges in the conduct of experiments and the interpretation of results. Franklin applied them to further problems related to coal and to other carbonaceous materials, in particular the changes to the arrangement of atoms when these are converted to graphite.
She coined the terms graphitising and non-graphitising carbon. The coal work was covered in a monograph, need a thesis for 6 th grade history of israel, [50] and in the regularly-published textbook Chemistry and Physics of Carbon.
In Januaryshe started working as a research associate in the Medical Research Council's MRC Biophysics Unit, directed by John Randall.
Even using crude equipment, Wilkins and Gosling had obtained an outstanding diffraction picture of DNA which sparked further interest in this molecule. Franklin, need a thesis for 6 th grade history of israel, now working with Gosling, [61] started to apply her expertise in X-ray diffraction techniques to the structure of DNA.
She used a new fine-focus X-ray tube and microcamera ordered by Wilkins, but which she refined, adjusted and focused carefully. Drawing upon her physical chemistry background, she also skillfully manipulated the critical hydration of her specimens.
Franklin presented their data at a lecture in Novemberin King's College London. In her lecture notes, Franklin wrote the following: [64]. Franklin's habit of intensely looking people in the eye while being concise, impatient and direct unnerved many of her colleagues. In stark contrast, Wilkins was very shy, and slowly calculating in speech while he avoided looking anyone directly in the eye. Franklin named these two forms " B " and " A " respectively. The biological functions of A-DNA were discovered only 60 years later.
Franklin chose the data rich "A" form while Wilkins selected the "B" form [69] [70] because, according to his autobiography, Wilkins' preliminary pictures had hinted it might be helical. The X-ray diffraction pictures, including the landmark Photo 51 taken by Franklin's student Gosling at this time, [58] have been called by John Desmond Bernal as "amongst the most beautiful X-ray photographs of any substance ever taken". By the end of it was generally accepted at King's that the B form of DNA was a helixbut after she had recorded an asymmetrical image in MayFranklin became unconvinced that the A form of DNA was a helix.
By JanuaryFranklin had reconciled her conflicting data, concluding that both DNA forms had two helices, and had started to write a series of three draft manuscripts, two of which included a double helical DNA backbone see below.
Her two A-DNA manuscripts reached Acta Crystallographica in Copenhagen on 6 Marchone day before Crick and Watson had completed their model on B-DNA, need a thesis for 6 th grade history of israel. She must have mailed them while the Cambridge team was building their model, and certainly had written them before she knew of their work.
The third draft paper was on the B form of DNA, dated 17 Marchwhich was discovered years later amongst her papers, [78] by Franklin's Birkbeck colleague, Aaron Klug. He then published an evaluation of the draft's close correlation with the third of the original trio of 25 April Nature DNA articles. As vividly described in The Double Helixon 30 JanuaryWatson travelled to King's carrying a preprint of Linus Pauling 's incorrect proposal for DNA structure.
Since Wilkins was not in his office, Watson went to Franklin's lab with his urgent message that they should all collaborate before Pauling discovered his error.
The unimpressed Franklin became angry when Watson suggested she did not know how to interpret her own data. Watson hastily retreated, backing into Wilkins who had been attracted by the commotion.
Wilkins commiserated with his harried friend and then showed Watson Franklin's DNA X-ray image. In FebruaryJames Watson and Francis Crick of the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge University had started to build a molecular model of the B form of DNA using data similar to that available to both teams at King's. Much of their data was derived directly from research done at King's by Wilkins and Franklin.
Franklin's research was completed by Februaryahead of her move to Birkbeck, and her data was critical. She took the view that building a model was to be undertaken only after enough of the structure was known. Ever cautious, she wanted to eliminate misleading possibilities. Photographs of her Birkbeck work table show that she routinely used small molecular models, although certainly not ones on the grand scale successfully used at Cambridge for DNA.
In the middle of FebruaryCrick's thesis advisor, Max Perutzgave Crick a copy of a report written for a Medical Research Council biophysics committee visit to King's in Decembercontaining many of Franklin's crystallographic calculations. Since Franklin had decided to transfer to Birkbeck College and Randall had insisted that all DNA work must stay at King's, Wilkins was given copies of Franklin's diffraction photographs by Gosling.
By 28 FebruaryWatson and Crick felt they had solved the problem enough for Crick to proclaim in the local pub that they had "found the secret of life". Watson and Crick finished building their model on 7 Marchone day before they received a letter from Wilkins stating that Franklin was finally leaving and they could put "all hands to the pump".
Wilkins came to see the model the following week, according to Franklin's biographer Brenda Maddox on 12 March, and allegedly informed Gosling on his return to King's. It is uncertain how long it took for Gosling to inform Franklin at Birkbeck, but her original 17 March B-DNA manuscript does not reflect any knowledge of the Cambridge model.
Franklin did modify this draft later before publishing it as the third in the trio of 25 April Nature articles. On 18 March, [91] in response to receiving a copy of their preliminary manuscript, Wilkins penned the following: "I think you're a couple of old rogues, but you may well have something".
Weeks later, on 10 April, Franklin wrote to Crick for permission to see their model. She is reported to have commented, "It's very pretty, but how are they going to prove it? Accordingly, her response to the Watson—Crick model was in keeping with her cautious approach to science.
Crick and Watson then published their model in Nature on 25 Aprilin an article describing the double-helical structure of DNA with only a footnote acknowledging "having been stimulated by a general knowledge of" Franklin and Wilkins' "unpublished" contribution. As a result of a deal struck by the two laboratory directors, articles by Wilkins and Franklin, which included their X-ray diffraction data, were modified and then published second and third in the same issue of Natureseemingly only in support of the Crick and Watson theoretical paper which proposed a model for the B form of DNA.
At first mainly geneticists embraced the model because of its obvious genetic implications. Franklin left King's College London in mid-March for Birkbeck Collegein a move that had been planned for some time and that she described in a letter to Adrienne Weill in Paris as "moving from a palace to the slums but pleasanter all the same".
Her new laboratories were housed in 21 Torrington Square, one of a pair of dilapidated and cramped Georgian houses containing several different departments; Franklin frequently took Bernal to task over the careless attitudes of some of the other laboratory staff, notably after workers in the pharmacy department flooded her first-floor laboratory with water on one occasion.
Despite the parting words of Bernal to stop her interest in nucleic acids, she helped Gosling to finish his thesis, although she was no longer his official supervisor. Together they published the first evidence of double helix in the A form of DNA in the 25 July issue of Nature.
Despite the ARC funding, Franklin wrote to Bernal that the existing facilities remained highly unsuited for conducting research " my desk and lab are on the fourth floor, my X-ray tube in the basement, and I am responsible for the work of four people distributed over the basement, first and second floors on two different staircases. Franklin continued to explore another major nucleic acid, RNAa molecule equally central to life as DNA.
She again used X-ray crystallography to study the structure of the tobacco mosaic virus TMVan RNA virus. Her meeting with Aaron Klug in early led to a longstanding and successful collaboration. Klug had just then earned his PhD from Trinity College, Cambridgeand joined Birkbeck in late
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, time: 43:19Rosalind Franklin - Wikipedia
Jan 28, · 12 th grade students (fifteen to eighteen years old). Encouraging results were also reported with high school high achie vers in Israel where 60 Jul 26, · Online theology programs engage enrollees in academic explorations of religious texts, religious practice, and blogger.com States online theology programs often align with specific Christian traditions and serve students seeking ministry and church Rosalind Elsie Franklin (25 July – 16 April ) was an English chemist and X-ray crystallographer whose work was central to the understanding of the molecular structures of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA (ribonucleic acid), viruses, coal, and graphite. Although her works on coal and viruses were appreciated in her lifetime, her contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA
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